Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, 2nd Ed.pdf

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most land in china was held communally. three main categories of land ownership existed: the imperial holdings of the central government; the holdings of the provincial and prefecture governments; and the holdings of the counties, towns, and villages (in that order of importance). the peasant class lived in the provinces and prefectures, and most land was held by a few families who worked the land for subsistence. large amounts of land were controlled by a few large landlords, who reaped profits from the labour of tenants and their families. the landlords also managed large areas of the countrys road and water transportation network. in the process, they collected taxes that were shared with the central government. this system was not free from conflict. the village held the community together, but the system of land ownership could be manipulated, and the peasant class was forced to pay heavy taxes and perform hard labour. in the late ming, the peasant class became a political power in its own right. the peasants supported the ming governments efforts to eradicate corruption and to consolidate its power. in the process, they upset the interests of the landlords, who, in turn, supported the ming and ming loyalists. in this struggle for control over the politics and economy, the peasants gained the upper hand. however, they did not eliminate the landlords; instead, they took their economic power into their own hands. peasants seized control of land for their own use. they also took over roads and transportation, and they forced landlords to share the taxes that they collected. the ming attempted to control the peasants and, in the process, they destroyed their political power. some of the landlords went into hiding, and the peasants were forced to re-establish order. peasants were made to perform hard labour in the roads and in the fields. the ming tried to put down the rebellion by force, but they could not suppress the peasants power. the peasants rallied to ming loyalists, and the ming was forced to surrender to the peasants. the peasants assumed power in the ming dynasty, and they established the ming dynasty. the peasants also abolished the system of land ownership. they gave each peasant family a plot of land, and peasants were allowed to work the land for themselves. the peasants controlled the roads and the water transportation, which allowed them to protect their land and to make money from taxes. thus, the peasants became the most powerful social class in ming china, and they used that power to seize control of the state.

therefore, you should cherish the right as the emperor and with the same sincerity as he, thus, when you talk, say nothing good. if you speak, be careful what you say, think what you say, and say the truth. do not do evil and keep up good deeds. remember the goodness of the whole family. then there will be no need for punishment, and you will be respected by the world. those who are trustworthy and honest are cultivated by the world. thus, heaven will reward them and will compensate them.
this means that the ability of the ruler and the ability of the minister are the same, and the ability of the ruler and the ability of the subject are the same. therefore, the ruler is not inferior to the minister. the minister is not inferior to the subject. the ruler is not inferior to the subject. the minister is not inferior to the ruler. therefore, it is said:
the people of the four directions are the various forms of the people, and the people of the four seasons are various forms of the people. thus, the principle of yin and yang serves as the basis for all relations between the ruler and subject, the minister and subject, the gentleman and subject, and even the ruler and the minister. thus the central state is the center of the country, the center of the family, and the center of the body of the minister, whereas the family is the center of the country, the country is the center of the family, and the body of the minister is the center of the country. thus, the family is the center of the country, the country is the center of the family, and the body of the minister is the center of the country. thus, the world is the center of the family, the family is the center of the world, and the body of the minister is the center of the family. thus, the ruler is the center of the world, the world is the center of the ruler, and the minister is the center of the world. thus, the world is the center of the ruler, the ruler is the center of the world, and the minister is the center of the world. thus, the world is the center of the world, the world is the center of the ruler, and the ruler is the center of the world.
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